Understanding the Mammogram Procedure

Approximately 252,710 American women will be diagnosed with invasive breast cancer in 2017. Breast cancer is the second deadliest form of cancer in women, and of those who are diagnosed around 40,610 are predicted to die. The good news is that early detection radically increases a woman’s chances of survival, and advanced screening techniques (including the mammogram procedure) combined with new, personalized therapies are creating stronger, more effective ways for doctors and their patients to fight the disease ([1] American Cancer Society).

You probably know that the mammogram procedure is one of the most common ways that doctors screen patients for breast cancer. But how do you know if you should get one? And what should you expect if you’ve never had a mammogram procedure before?

Don’t let fear of the unknown prevent you from utilizing this potentially-lifesaving measure. Here we’ll demystify some important facts about mammograms, and talk through what you need to know about standard mammogram procedure before you get one.

SHOULD I GET A MAMMOGRAM?

A mammogram is an X-ray of the breast that is used to screen for and diagnose cancers and other breast diseases that may not be visible from the outside or detectable by touch (Johns Hopkins).

Women over 40, women with a personal or family history of breast cancer, and women who have tested positive for certain genetic markers associated with an increased risk for the disease appear to derive the greatest benefit from mammograms. Age is an important factor in determining when a woman should begin to use mammograms as a method of screening: younger women tend to have a lower incidence of breast cancer, and tend to have denser breast tissue that makes mammography less reliable as a preventative strategy.(UpToDate).

You and your doctor must work together to determine if mammograms are an appropriate screening strategy for you. Your doctor may order a mammogram as part of a regular, precautionary regimen (a “screening mammogram”), or if a lump or other anomaly is discovered during a previous mammogram or breast exam (a “diagnostic mammogram”). If so, your doctor will refer you to a radiology facility or clinic that is equipped to perform the procedure. You may also get a referral for a mammogram through Planned Parenthood (Planned Parenthood).

Mammograms are often an outpatient procedure, though your doctor may also order one as part of your treatment while you are in the hospital (Johns Hopkins). Your doctor may recommend mammograms in combination with other screening and diagnostic methods such as clinical breast exams (palpation or examination by touch), ultrasound or MRI imaging, and genetic testing. Modern techniques mean the radiation exposure a woman receives from a mammogram is considered to be negligible (UpToDate).

MAMMOGRAM PROCEDURE: WHAT TO EXPECT

Mammogram procedure may vary slightly from facility to facility, and from woman to woman. That said, there are several basic steps that you should take in order to prepare for your mammogram no matter where you go.

If you are visiting a mammogram facility for the first time, always bring your medical records with you or arrange to have them delivered to the clinic. ([2] American Cancer Society). Always inform the facility if you’ve had any kind of medical procedure performed on your breasts in the past, including previous mammograms, biopsies, breast implants, enhancements, or breast reductions. Always inform your technician in advance if you have breast implants, if you are pregnant, or if you are currently breastfeeding. Women with implants can (and should) still receive mammograms, though your facility may need to take extra measures to in order to ensure the most accurate results. Silicone or saline implants will obscure part of the breast tissue that is visible on a mammogram, and so additional imaging is typically required for women who have them. ([3] American Cancer Society). You may need to arrange for a technician or facility experienced in screening women with implants, so don’t be afraid to ask questions when you make your initial appointment (Johns Hopkins).

Be sure to remove any nipple piercings or jewelry on or near your breasts prior to your visit. Don’t wear antiperspirant, deodorant, skin creams, or powders on or near your breasts the day of your mammogram: many of these products contain metallic substances (like aluminum) which may appear on the mammogram as a white spot or calcification (Johns Hopkins).

When you arrive, your technician (also called a radiologic technologist) will talk you through the details of the mammogram procedure. Be sure to mention any lumps, changes, or unusual symptoms you may have noticed at this time, in addition to any hormonal treatments you may be taking or changes (like menopause) you may be experiencing.

Before your mammogram, your technician will ask you to remove your bra and clothing from the waist up and provide you with a gown. The technician will then have you stand in front of a mammography machine, which compresses each breast between two plates in order to take an X-ray picture. “Flattening” the breast in this way allows your technician to obtain a more accurate image, and also reduces the amount of radiation required for the procedure. This compression may be uncomfortable, but it shouldn’t be painful; scar tissue or recent surgery may cause greater discomfort for some women, and many women find it helpful to avoid scheduling their mammograms immediately prior to or during menstruation when breasts are more likely to be tender. (Johns Hopkins). Don’t be afraid to speak up and tell your technician right away if something is painful!

Your technician will scan each breast one at a time, repositioning the breast on the X-ray plate between each image. Typically, he or she will take two images per breast for women without implants, and four images per breast for women with implants, though the exact number of images may vary from woman to woman ([3] American Cancer Society).

All in all, the whole procedure should take 20-30 minutes. (Johns Hopkins)

WHAT NEXT?

After a radiologist has read and analyzed the X-ray films, the mammography clinic will send the results to the doctor who referred you. The clinic will also mail a summary of these results directly to you ([2] American Cancer Society). You may be asked to go back in for additional imaging after your initial mammogram. Remember that getting called back is quite common, and does not necessarily mean you have cancer. As the American Cancer Society notes, “less than 10% of women called back for more tests are found to have breast cancer.” ([4] American Cancer Society).

You may have heard about instances of “false positive” results from mammograms, or read about the risk of  “overdiagnosis” and “overtreatment” associated with mammograms as a method of screening: that is, sometimes a mammogram may detect a lump or other disease that would typically be benign if it went undetected, leading to unnecessary treatment. The good news is that more specific, “personalized” screening measures – like using genomic testing to determine if a woman is at increased risk for breast cancer, and thusly more likely to benefit from mammograms – are helping doctors to reduce the incidence of false positives, keep costs down, and make the best possible use of mammograms as a screening and diagnostic tool (STAT).

Remember that it is often difficult to tell how aggressive a cancer or other disease may be through mammography alone, so always talk to your doctor about your options for further testing and treatment if your mammogram does come back with abnormal results. Don’t be afraid to ask questions if you have trouble understanding something, or to get a second opinion if you have any doubts or concerns about your results or treatment.

Above all, remember that mammograms are just one of the many resources women have at their disposal to make better, more informed choices about their health. And in the fight against cancer, a little knowledge can be a lifesaving thing.

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REFERENCES

[1] American Cancer Society – How Common Is Breast Cancer?

https://www.cancer.org/cancer/breast-cancer/about/how-common-is-breast-cancer.html

Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library – Mammogram Procedure.

http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/test_procedures/gynecology/mammogram_procedure_92,P07781/

UpToDate.com – Screening for breast cancer: Strategies and recommendations. Joann G. Elmore, MD MPH. Topic last updated: August 26, 2016

https://www.uptodate.com/contents/screening-for-breast-cancer-strategies-and-recommendations?source=search_result&search=mammogram&selectedTitle=1~150

Planned Parenthood – Statement from Planned Parenthood Federation of America Senior Director of Medical Services Dr. Deborah Nucatola on Breast Health Services. October 17, 2012

https://www.plannedparenthood.org/about-us/newsroom/press-releases/statement-planned-parenthood-senior-director-medical-services-breast-health-services

[2] American Cancer Society – Mammograms: What to Know Before You Go.

https://www.cancer.org/cancer/breast-cancer/screening-tests-and-early-detection/mammograms/mammograms-what-to-know-before-you-go.html

[3] American Cancer Society – Mammograms for Women with Breast Implants.

https://www.cancer.org/cancer/breast-cancer/screening-tests-and-early-detection/mammograms/mammograms-for-women-with-breast-implants.html

[4] American Cancer Society – Getting Called Back After a Mammogram.

https://www.cancer.org/cancer/breast-cancer/screening-tests-and-early-detection/mammograms/getting-called-back-after-a-mammogram.html

STAT – Mammograms plus personalized treatment are the best options to fight breast cancer. Dennis Citrin, February 16, 2017.

https://www.statnews.com/2017/02/16/mammograms-plus-personalized-treatment-best-options-fight-breast-cancer/

What Is Precision Cancer Medicine? How Targeted Therapies Are Changing The Way We Think About Treatment

President Jimmy Carter and Precision Cancer Medicine: In December 2015, former President Jimmy Carter announced that he no longer displayed any signs of cancer following his diagnosis and treatment for metastatic melanoma that had spread to his liver and brain. Carter had undergone a regimen of surgery, radiation, and targeted immunotherapy, crediting a drug called pembrolizumab (Keytruda) for playing a significant role in his apparent early remission. (The Carter Center).

For patients battling cancer, Carter’s story was inspiring: an older patient with a metastasized disease had achieved remarkable results with the aid of a promising new drug. His high-profile case put a new spotlight on a phenomenon commonly known as “precision cancer medicine”: a targeted approach to cancer treatment that’s providing hope and an expanded range of options for doctors and their patients. What is precision cancer medicine and if you or someone you love is fighting the disease, how might new advancements in targeted cancer therapy affect your options for treatment?

PRECISION CANCER MEDICINE DEFINED: DECODING THE BUZZWORD

According to UpToDate.com, precision (sometimes called “personalized”) medicine “refers to the application of patient-specific profiles, incorporating genetic and genomic data as well as clinical and environmental factors, to assess individual risks and tailor prevention and disease-management strategies” ([1] UpToDate). Put more simply: doctors are learning more about the human genome all the time, and are using that knowledge to develop new ways to treat disease. Combined with information about a patient’s lifestyle, environment, and history, doctors may then use that knowledge to decide which treatments might be most effective for each individual patient.

The somewhat broad umbrella of “precision medicine” includes (but is not limited to) oncology.

Oncologists have long sought an alternative to the “spray and pray” approach of traditional chemotherapy, which destroys healthy cells as well as malignant ones and overwhelms the body with a battery of harmful side-effects (such as hair loss, anemia, and even an increased risk of secondary cancers). Certain modern techniques now permit doctors to be more precise and less invasive in their approach, isolating and destroying cancer cells with reduced toxicity and fewer side-effects for the patient. Examples of these techniques include targeted radiation therapies (like stereotatctic radio surgery) ([2] UpToDate), and targeted pharmaceuticals (such as the pembrolizumab that doctors chose to treat Jimmy Carter).

GENOMICS: FROM SCREENING TO TREATMENT

So, how do doctors choose which precision treatments to use? You may have heard your doctor talk about something called genomic testing: that is, the analysis of an individual’s DNA to identify certain traits that may place him or her at increased risk for cancer or other diseases, and that may determine the particular type of cancer a person has. By referencing your genetic data prior to treatment, doctors may be able to make more informed decisions about which course of therapy to pursue. In theory, this strategy should help minimize side-effects, keep costs down, and save valuable time that might be lost through a trial-and-error approach to treatment. (National Foundation for Cancer Research)

Even if you don’t currently have cancer, you may wish to utilize genetic profiling to gain a better picture of your overall health and facilitate the prevention, diagnoses, and treatment of certain cancers in the future. For example, a woman with a family history of breast or ovarian cancer may choose to utilize genetic profiling in order to determine whether she carries a mutation in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which is associated with an increased risk for the disease. If testing reveals that she does carry a mutated copy of the gene, she may choose to undergo more frequent screening measures (such as regular mammograms) in a effort to detect cancer early; she may also elect to undergo a prophylactic mastectomy or oophorectomy to decrease her risk of developing the disease. If she does ultimately develop breast or ovarian cancer, her genetic status may help her doctors determine a more specific (and ideally, more effective) course of treatment: for example, her oncologist may choose to prescribe a PARP inhibitor after an initial regimen of chemotherapy, which research suggests may be particularly effective in women with BRCA-mutated ovarian cancers.

A better understanding of how your particular type of cancer functions on a molecular level may guide your doctor in choosing certain drug treatments over others. In the case of Jimmy Carter, doctors utilized a type of pharmaceutical called an immune checkpoint inhibitor to treat his melanoma in conjunction with surgery and focused radiation. Immune checkpoint inhibitors help activate the human body’s natural immune responses to attack abnormal cancer cells but leave normal, healthy cells unharmed. In addition to melanoma of the skin, this type of immunotherapy has shown promise in treating non-small cell lung cancer, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, head and neck cancers, and Hodgkin lymphoma ([1] American Cancer Society).

PRECISION CANCER MEDICINE: WHAT’S THE CATCH?

It’s important to remember that we still have much to learn about cancer. Doctors are still learning about the benefits and limitations of genomic medicine, and our understanding of how precision cancer medicine might compliment more traditional therapies is still unfolding.

As some doctors were quick to note, it may be premature to label any one factor as the “most significant” element in former President Carter’s remission: in addition to targeted immunotherapy, traditional surgery and focused radiation also played important roles in his treatment (MedPage Today). Others postulated that early detection may have improved his prognosis, giving him an overall advantage no matter what treatment strategy his doctors chose (CNN). And above all, the longterm efficacy of Carter’s treatment has yet to be determined: after all, cancer may still recur in the future even after a patient goes into remission and shows no signs of the disease ([2] American Cancer Society).

In addition, the new age of precision cancer medicine and genomic profiling has brought with it the inevitable array of enterprising corporate entities (some more reputable than others), all claiming to offer genetic testing services to directly to the public. These direct-to-consumer testing (or DTC) services have come under increased scrutiny by the FDA, and their efficacy at predicting genetic risk for disease appears unreliable ([1] UpToDate). If you decide to pursue DTC genetic testing, always get a second opinion from your doctor before using the results to embark on a new course of treatment.

IN CONCLUSION

As we enter this new era of medical understanding and discovery, we must remain hopeful but cautious. While modern targeted therapies provide more choices and greater agency for doctors and patients alike, we should be careful not to mislabel the advent of precision cancer medicine as an all-encompassing “miracle cure.” That said, our understanding of the human genome continues to expand by the day, as does our arsenal of promising resources for detecting and treating various forms of cancer – and that’s exciting news! For people like former President Carter, precision medicine may indeed pave the way for a longer, healthier life.

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REFERENCES

The Carter Center: Statement From Former President Jimmy Carter. December 5, 2015.

https://www.cartercenter.org/news/pr/carter-center-statement-120615.html

[1] UpToDate: Personalized Medicine. Benjamin A Raby, MD, MPH. Topic last updated: April 16, 2016.

https://www.uptodate.com/contents/personalized-medicine?source=search_result&search=precision%20medicine&selectedTitle=1~150

[2] UpToDate: Radiation therapy in the management of melanoma. Arnand Mahadevan, MD. Topic last updated: January 16, 2017.

https://www.uptodate.com/contents/radiation-therapy-in-the-management-of-melanoma?source=search_result&search=focused%20radiation%20therapy&selectedTitle=5~150

National Foundation for Cancer Research: Cancer Genomics.

http://nfcr.org/genomics/

[1] American Cancer Society: Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors to Treat Cancer. Last Revised: March 23, 2017.

https://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/treatment-types/immunotherapy/immune-checkpoint-inhibitors.html

MedPage Today: Most Experts Not Surprised By Carter’s Status. Charles Bankhead, December 8, 2015.

http://www.medpagetoday.com/HematologyOncology/SkinCancer/55076

CNN: Jimmy Carter is ‘cancer free’: Miracle or just science? Sandee LaMotte, December 7, 2015

http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/06/health/jimmy-carter-cancer-doctor-interview/index.html

[2] American Cancer Society: Understanding Recurrance.

https://www.cancer.org/treatment/survivorship-during-and-after-treatment/understanding-recurrence.html